Dynamics of the Refugee Movement During and After the Partition

Several themes have been identified in the film â€Å"Khamosh Pani†, all speaking about the society and politics of Pakistan and the influence of the partition on the two. The concept goes from discussing the refugee movements to Zia’s Islamization and the religious intolerance to position of women in our culture. In my paper, I’ll be talking mostly about the dynamics of the refugee movement during and after 1947. India was divided on the 14th and 15th of August, 1947 into the sovereign states of the union of India (latter republic of India) and the dominion of Pakistan (latter renamed as Islamic Republic of Pakistan and Peoples Republic of Bangladesh). The partition was broadcasted in the Indian Independence act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Indian Empire. Punjab was divided into two, the west side for Punjab of Pakistan and the east side for Punjab of India. The major districts affected were jallunder, Gurdespur and Hoslipur. Sadly the people of this area knew not until almost the last minute whether they were to put as part of India or Pakistan. Apart from this, Bengal province was divided into East Pakistan (Bangladesh after 1971), far from the rest of the country (West Pakistan). The Partition resulted in the relocation of around eight million Muslims, and some what the same numbers of Sikhs and Hindus, across the Indo-Pakistan borders in the in 1947. This has been recorded as the largest refugee movement of the 20th century, and was accompanied by communal violence and atrocities committed on all sides of the religious spectrum, with a death toll calculated at approximately 1 million. People were moving from east Punjab to west Punjab and vice versa, west Bengal to east and people from the mainland India, United Province /Central Province/Delhi mainly migrated to urban area of Pakistan especially Karachi and Hyderabad. Over all some 14 million people left everything behind and set out to move across the newly formed border by train, bus, lorry, bull arts and foot, all to seek refuge with â€Å"their own kind†. Many were slaughtered by the opposing side, many starved or exhausted to death. Also, a large number of those who made it across died from diseases like cholera dysentery. People were left behind as well, families were broken apart. This is shown in â€Å"Khamosh Pani† too. The refugees had to face many proble ms, this accounts for both sides of the border. Their problems can mainly be classified into social, economical and emotional/psychological. Social problems are normally that of adjusting with the new language and new culture. However, in this case, although communication and culture may not have been the major problem, there were other social problems such as having to leave their community and neighbours, people with such strong family ties from centuries. The social displacement was so huge, in India they lived in villages, in mohallahs, in cities within net cohesive societies. And then coming to a new land, trying to embrace it and hoping to be embraced back by it. When they came here, they had to disperse all over Pakistan where ever they could settle or get their hold over property. Secondly the economic problems meant having to leave all their assets/ property/ belongings behind when they shifted to the new area. They had no shelter, no food, and no money. Although some land was allotted on proof of property possession in India but most people did not have property documents. This also links with the administrative problem that the system and the government faced because of these refugees. It had nothing to feed them; the country itself was just learning to stand on its own feet. There was massive insecurity and threat. The funds it had, it wanted to pump into defence for the long term interest and safekeeping of the country. However, the already residing Muslims welcomed them and backed them up, the government put up relief camps for the refugee wellbeing but this too only mean further movement and disarticulation for them. Still with no business, no job, no property, the life of the refugees took a new start from scratch. Thirdly, the refugees were over come with stress, mental exhaustion and psychological denial. Having to leave their assets behind and struggling for life in a new piece of land was one thing; these people had seen so much blood shed that is was nearly impossible to continue life in its normal state. The thought your loved ones killed, slaughtered, shot, burned gives one the chills, and these people had to witness such horror through their own eyes. The opposing side killed mercilessly. They looted. They molested and captured and killed females. Such images aren’t easily forgotten and stories still run in many families of the hardships faced by our ancestors. Relatives left behind had it worse, and their families lived in the trauma of knowing their loved was alive and there was no way of getting to them, as shown in the film â€Å"Khamosh Pani†. The difficulties these refugees faced no doubt caused incurable pain and discomfort. But did they get an advantage out of all this? Did they and their generations live better now then had they not migrated? Certainly yes. The migration to a Muslim homeland opened doors for opportunities they would have never seen otherwise. Same goes for the Sikh and Hindus that migrated to the east. They got a better economic environment, new jobs, and new business. Many got better properties. In united India, very few Muslims could get good jobs and favourable livelihood, due to the British favourism towards the Hindus/non Muslims. The new civil sector, government sector, the military, proper colleges and universities, all opened up new branches to life for these refugees. They could now enjoy a life that would otherwise not have been possible for many decades to come.

The Dangers of Cell Phone Use While Driving

In today’s society, most people communicate using of cell phones. Just 15 to 20 years ago, cell phones were a rarity for the average person. The average income person could not afford a cell phone. Today, cell phones are affordable and the majority of people own them. The days of waiting until you are home to use a telephone or searching for a pay phone if you are out are long gone. In fact, pay phones are being removed, which increases the need for a cell phone. The government will provide a cell phone with limited monthly service for those that are low income and meet certain criteria. The cell phone has also created people to feel the need to be accessible to constant communication. The major problem lies with cell phone use while driving, which presents a constant danger on the road. In many instances, it is a deadly danger. Based on my experience and experiences of those I know, I believe that law should ban all cell phone use. Laws have passed recently restricting the use to a hands free device while driving. I feel this is a good move in the right direction however; a hands free device can be equally as distraction. Some claim the distraction is no different from changing a radio station or taking a sip of your beverage. I do not believe this claim to be true. I cannot count the number of times I have witnessed a driver using their cell phone, not giving their full attention to the traffic. I have witnessed drivers pull out directly in front of on coming vehicles barely avoiding an accident. My adult children are prime examples of this practice. I have been a passenger with them while they take a call or look at a text message. During the conversation or glancing at the text message; they have crossed the centerline, weaved over onto the shoulder of the road, and swerved within their lane. I fear for their safety, others safety, and my own. Many feel the use of a hands free device is safer. In many ways, it is safer but still is a major distraction. A friend of my son was in a deadly accident while using his hands free device. He was riding his motorcycle and having a conversation on his â€Å"Bluetooth†. He was speaking to a friend and told them he was going to pass a trash truck. He was traveling on a single lane roadway. While passing at a high rate of speed he lost control. The friend heard what was happening. The young man was thrown over the front of the motorcycle landing on his head. His neck was broken. He was paralyzed from the head down and was only able to mouth words as his larynx was paralyzed. He was mouthing the words, â€Å"let me go†. After a year, his parents made the agonizing decision to remove him from the ventilator. He died shortly after at the young age of 22. I cannot help but wonder had he not been talking on the phone would he have made a better decision about passing the trash truck. Most people feel these horrors cannot happen to them. Driving any vehicle requires full attention. I believe that using a cell phone can be as impairing as driving while under the influence of alcohol. Many laws have passed in Maryland and nationwide concerning the issue. I feel the laws are necessary and should go a stop further with a full ban. A full ban would save many lives across the state and the nation.

Self Magazine critic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Self Magazine critic - Essay Example The articles were usually based on elements that seemed quite fictional when considered to be applicable in real life. Needless to say, the cover page article on Keri Russell (Bried)was quite entertaining and one could not help but admit that the interview did indeed hold quite a degree of authenticity to it and a breath of fresh air when compared to a certain sense of artificialness that prevailed across the rest of the magazine (SELF Magazine). Articles such as Make good sex great (Pamela)and More Joy, Less Stress appeared to be amongst the major highlights of the issue and while one cannot feel that such article names are quite clichà © when considered in the backdrop of the modern day article names that are scattered across magazine covers, an brief overview of the articles proved that they were in fact quite unique in their narration and held a certain sense of honesty about them as if the author had not written them for mere commercial value and had not acquired the data used in the articles from a few second grade websites. Rather there was an undeniable feeling that no matter which perception the authors had kept in mind while writing the articles, one could not disagree on the fact that the knowledge of the writers regarding the subject matter of their articles was not something that one could doubt. Moving further on into the December issue of the much acclaimed magazine there was a pleasant picture that the magazine continued to present with articles such as 31 minutes to solve any shopping dilemma which was perhaps one of the few in the magazine that held a solid sense of reality and application in them. Other articles that were observed to possess a similar degree of applicable utility also included 8 One minute relaxers and 77 Easy ideas for doing good which were based upon a particular perception that was observed in not only this issue of the magazine but also in other issues of the magazine. The magazine ensured that not a single

Management consultancy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Management consultancy - Essay Example They also have team works in every representative they send to their clients. They also use the different consulting modes in how they consult with their clients. Table of Contents Introduction Management consulting in its essence is the action or practice of helping organizations and business to improve on their performance. They are therefore called upon to help management to achieve the organization goals. Organizations call them for a variety of reasons which are mainly centered on gaining an external objective input on how to run the organization. Another reason is management consultants are experts in this area therefore gaining expertise information from the consultants (Schwartz, 2002). They are valuable since they have dealt with many organizations and hence have expert knowledge on how to achieve success in the organization. Other essential skills that management consultants offer the organizations include change management assistance, development and coaching skills, techn ology setting up in the firm, strategy development and also efficiency in operational services. Management consultants manage these tasks by bringing their own methods and frameworks that have succeeded in other organizations to make the organization more efficient and effective at performing their tasks (Drucker, 2006). Management consultancy has grown over the years. ... Management consulting therefore depends on the specialization of the consultancy firm and the consulting needs of the organization. They include information technology consulting, virtual management, human resource consulting and financial consulting. Sometimes some of this specialization offered by consultancy firms overlap and they offer an even more diversified consultancy (Werr, 2004). The field of management consultancy has grown to include consultancy in non-public organizations including the public sector. In the UK, there has been extensive use of management consultants. The government has spent a large sum between 1996 and 2006; it used 20 billion pounds in management consultants. This has raised question among the House of Commons if this type investment was even worth it. But the use of management consulting has yielded fruit especially in the National Health Service, in the Local Government Association Improvement and Development Agency and also in the National Supports T eams. Although Management consulting can be somewhat expensive it is essential. It often leads to better performance of the organization in general. It is therefore one thing that all companies and firms should consider especially in areas which they lack a lot of skills or if the firm is on the red and requires a turnaround plan to make it more profitable (Norton, 2006). Client Centered consulting process model by Cockman This consultancy cycle or model has been used by many consultants to show the interaction of the consultants and the client from the beginning of the consultancy model. At times it does not reflect what actually happens in reality. But like all models following them makes the process better. The Professional Consultants were

The future of Food Supply Chain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The future of Food Supply Chain - Essay Example With the concern moving to the scarcity of resources, the world is facing a new challenge of producing more with lesser resources. The food supply chain industry is dominated by features like increasing demands, increasing volatility risks and limitation of resources. Discussion There are various factors that are likely to shape the future of the global food supply chain industry. The factors arising from the suppliers’ side are: increased competition for expenditures by the consumers, major changes in the operating environment, improvement of the quality of the commodities, high differentiation level of food products, cost-effective and flexible modes of logistics. The factors arising from the viewpoint of the customers are nutritional qualities of the food products, health benefits, sensitivity of the customers towards safety and quality of food, ways of production, place of production, environmental and social concerns and welfare of the community. The most important elemen ts for consideration in the designing of the food supply chains are on-shelf availability and cost efficiency for the businesses. But in the light of the emerging environmental concerns other factors like greenhouse gas emissions, energy conservation, increasing traffic congestions and transportation costs are also gaining importance. Challenges The future of global food supply chain focuses on the following critical dimensions: The global food supply chain industry is feeling the necessity of a paradigm shift in the processes as the future of the industry is considered to be highly different from the past trends in the industry. The need for adopting the latest technologies and innovations by the supply chain like the adaptation of the green supply chain is critical to comply with the raising environmental concerns all across the globe. The challenges arising in the global market which will influence operational changes in the major companies involved in the food supply chain indus try. The food supply chain industry has identified the need to implement a new business model to deal with critical issues like taking up new business opportunities and achieving sustainability in the industry. The increasing demand and the scarcity of resources is a major issue faced by the global food supply chain industry (McKinsey & Company 7). The population of the world is increasing in manifolds and so is the necessity to provide food and nutrition to the global population. According to the latest statistics, more than 850 billion people throughout the globe do not have proper access to food commodities and are more sensitive to price increases and nutritional concerns. The global food supplies need a boost by a considerable increase in the production of environmentally sustainable food commodities. But reaching stabilization is difficult due to the complexity of the food supply chains and the various factors diversely affecting its operations. Internal forces driving change The major changes in the food supply chain industry that will influence the changes in the supply chains are the flow of information, consumer behavior and the movement of goods (McKinsey & Company 12). Since these are internal changes occurring within the industry, the industry would have some control over reshaping these factors. Information flow: The proper flow of informatio

Bolg analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bolg analysis - Essay Example Some of these eating behaviours have resulted in numerous health problems that extensively challenge individuals’ well-being. Food, cooking and eating have, therefore, become topics of interest that have caught the attention of many health providers. This paper critically analyses Born Fitness blog and comprehensively explores some of the cultural issues it addresses about cooking and eating. The blog theme circumnavigates around body fitness and how it can be achieved. According to Volpe (2007: 32), a healthy body is one that is fed on the right meals and exposed to regular exercise. One can physically stay fit and health-wise if they are conscious about what they eat. Regular exercising cannot be ignored if one is to achieve a healthy body. With this understanding, the blog seeks to painstakingly address the issue of body fitness by providing information on what one needs to do and what should be avoided to achieve healthy bodies. In the blog, there are different segments containing varied articles addressing diverse topics. The blog targets those who could be mindful of their health especially those who seek to find information regarding the do’s and don’ts in keeping body fitness. This could be men, women or even children. The prime message that the blog writer is broadcasting concerns nutrition and how health and fitness can be attained. This can be at tributed to the fact that the blog’s name bears the word ‘fitness’ to suggest it tackles the issue of body health. Also, it has several articles that give advice on what people should eat and what they should avoid. It primary purpose is to direct the society to finding better ways of achieving bodily health. As highlighted, the key topic in the blog is proper nutrition for good health. Nutrition is a grave topic the blog explores because of the evidently changing eating and cooking behaviours that many nutrition researchers have

Peace Treaties and Blame for the War__WWI Term Paper

Peace Treaties and Blame for the War__WWI - Term Paper Example try with biggest responsibility over the war was attributable to the belief by other allies that Germany was responsible for the war.3 Countries that participated in the war were exhausted and their economies destroyed. Almost every family was a casualty of the war. In particular, French land was completely in a mess and Germany was held responsible for the damage. France wanted revenge over Germany and wanted her to be punished and crippled for causing her destruction. This was meant to teach Germany a lesson to deter her from instigating another war. With tremendous growth in the Europe in the 20th century, there were tension that this kind of growth could lead to emergence of war to maintain the levels of trade and technologies. The increase of social unrest and political struggle characterized the tension. Before the 1870s, Germany was made up of several minute kingdoms instead of one united nation. In the 1860s the kingdom of Prussia instigated a series of conflicts aimed at uniting German kingdoms. In 1870s, the North German Confederation entered into conflict with France and Bismarck. This led to the Franco-Prussian war that forced German rout the French. In early 1871, the country was united and the treaty of Frankfurt ended the war. Although Germany wanted to unit its kingdoms and become one nation, the events that followed saw the emergence of war that led to destruction of the economies of the allies. Boundaries were a common goal of Germany in the effort to unit its kingdoms. However, the method used led to involvement of other territories such as France, something that led to war and loss of life of territories that were not concerned with the interest of Germany. Therefore, the punishment of Germany could be argued to be justified since she had already caused political differences between countries bordering it. Although the war had a positive impact in that Germany was later united, the means of acquiring the one state was not justified. Besides,

Organizational behavior concepts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Organizational behavior concepts - Essay Example Managers are able to develop an understanding of what motivates employees to learn, train and perform optimally as individuals through the use of organizational behavior concepts. Managers realize there are many dynamics behind working within a group and the importance of group behaviors and communicating is a key link to empowering and controlling conflicts a group. Overall, in order for managers to be successful and effective they must utilize and develop the use of organizational behavior concepts that will enhance not only there own abilities but also there employees. Inexorably, the general movement in this country toward protecting both individual and group rights and sensitivities has spawned a number of innovative ideas and control mechanisms. These range from what might be subsumed under political correctness to particular penalty devices in criminal justice. Although not concerned with the rather complex social and political forces that have led the country through turbulent rights adjustments culminating in the criminalization of hate, it is important to have some understanding of the background. Fortunately, that understanding is widespread, thanks to the advanced state of public communications media, and requires little explication here. It is, perhaps, sufficient to note that the very concept of hate crime is of relatively recent origin and can best be understood in the context of what has been happening in this country in regard to changing and expanding notions of individual, group, and minority rights. The concept of hate crime does not encompass hatreds in general. One will not find hatred of either Republicans or Democrats, of either Bostonians or New Yorkers, or even of either criminals or noncriminals, in any way proscribed by the criminal law. Usually, it is only when hatred focuses on race, religion, ethnicity, gender, or s exual preference that the criminal law comes into play. Furthermore, hatred in one of those areas, by itself, is not criminal. It is only when some traditionally established crime, such as assault, vandalism and theft can be legally shown to have been motivated by hate against restrictively specified groups does the punitive hate crime mechanism become active. It is difficult to precisely trace the origins of an evolutionary process but certainly the activities of the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith must be regarded as seminal in regard to notions of hate crime. The League has been tracking one kind of hate crime, anti-Semitic vandalism, since 1960. In 1979, it first started to publish an annual "Audit of Anti-Semitic Incidents." These audits, from the beginning, revealed an alarming trend of increasing anti-Semitic vandalism and violence. The League responded by making greater efforts in terms of education, public exposure, and demands for law enforcement support. In 1981, the League's legal affairs department drafted a model hate crimes legislative bill, and the League continues to hold a leadership position in promoting hate crime statutes. (Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith 1988a) Other organizations, notably Afro-American groups, have also played a leadership role in pursuing hate crimes

APP assignment6 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

APP assignment6 - Assignment Example hey’s uses the batch process is shown in the division between the processing of cocoa beans, roasting the beans, making the chocolate liquor, and so on. In a way, Hershey’s also uses the assembly method because it employs mechanized fixed production arrangements to produce the same goods. The special hulling machine that takes out the nib or the inside of the bean from the shell is one example of automation used by Hershey’s in its production. Automation regulates the speed of different related activities that are carried out in step (Wilson & Hill 23)—roasting the beans, producing chocolate liquor, mixing milk-sugar and chocolate liquor, mixing cocoa butter with chocolate crumb, conching, cooling the chocolate, then packaging. Hershey’s chocolate making is continuous, not intermittent. Continuous refers to a form of production that operates continually with no irregularities or repeated pauses. In the continuous production method, products are generated continually according to demand estimate (Wilson & Hill 37). Hershey’s mass produce chocolates or manufacture chocolates on a massive scale for selling and supplying. The company does not produce in accordance to customer’s orders. The production method of a chocolate industry is largely determined by the demand projection. The features of a continuous production method that are demonstrated by the Hershey’s chocolate making system are as follows: process production is continuous; mass production; the products are generated on fixed quality criteria; and the products are generated in forecast of demand. If Hershey’s wants to open a new manufacturing facility in the U.S. Midwest it has to consider several factors. First is the availability or accessibility of resources or raw materials. The company should make sure that its facilities are near to a source of cacao. If these facilities are not located near to such sources, then the cost of transportation and sourcing will cut down the company’s

School policies and procedures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

School policies and procedures - Essay Example In fact, most teachers have also formed a strategic plan of motivating students by rewarding them and building their positive attitude in the classrooms. In this case, this essay will talk in deep length about a certain school I happened to visit whereby they have established their own rule and procedures, which the students should follow as well as the consequences of not complying with the rules. Easily notable is the school rule on absenteeism. In that school, the rule explains with clarity the consequences of any student who violates the rule. It states that if a student happens to be absent, they are supposed to report and clarify to the teacher why they were absent for the whole day or partial day within three days after being absent. Either way, they are allowed to bring a note from their parents/guardian or a phone call explaining why they were absent. The student is also allowed to bring a doctors note if they were sick, failure to do so, the absenteeism is taken as an offense hence consequences follow. Therefore, students who do not comply with that rule are assigned to a five-hour Saturday school for a period of twenty days to compensate for the absenteeism. They can also be placed in-house suspension where they are not allowed to go beyond the school for a certain period as set by teachers. Students who repeat the same offense are placed on the attendance behavior contracts with their parents where the regional educational officers are also summoned. The second notable rule is meant to control fighting and use of vulgar words among students. In this rule, students are not required to fight each other either physically or verbally. Any student caught in this act is enrolled for counseling section that could either require the presence of the parents. In addition, during this section, the student may be put on suspension from the school for about two weeks depending on the

Why Effective Communication Is Important Essay Example for Free

Why Effective Communication Is Important Essay 1. Understand why effective communication is important in the work setting? Communication is the key to understating and being understood. Commotion is essential for our survival and we use it in every aspect of our lives from the moment we are born. E.g. Talking, shouting, crying, reading, writing, seeing and listening. Body language and ecpressions are also use when communtatin. We all communicate with each other to achieve goals in ife, whether it be physical or emotional. Communication allows us to convey information, thought , moods. ( Eg. Happiness , sadness,anger). As a human being we all have a basic need to relate to each other and effectively expressing ourselfe through communication. In work setting it enables us to create and maintain relationships with everyone we have contact with. Identify the different reasons people communicat? There are lots of different reasons people communicate. People need to express needs and share ideas and information to build relationships and ask questions. It essential tool a caer can use to meet the needs of children. This is a basic requirerment in all jobs to communicate with individuals and their families and staff on a daily basis. 1.2 Explain how communication affects relationships in the work setting? Communication can affct relationships in many ways in a work setting. Read more:  Explain the reasons why people communicate  essay Colleagues The manager Supervisor Parents of the children and children Effective communication- is a two way proess. When communication you need to send clear and concise message to the responding party. Everyone most be understood correctly to have a response. We can also communicate by telephone, written notes, email, text messages and vocal. 2. Be able to meet the communication and language needs, wishes and preferences of individuals? Communication can be difficult, especially when you are in a situation where you are unsure of the language and abilities of those who you are associating with. Its always best when you meet someone to begin communication on your own terms; if you speak English greet them as such, although ensure that you are speaking slowly and clearly. It should be fairly easy to work out whether they have not understood due to communication impairments or language differences based upon their reaction to your initial introduction. If they have disabilities, try to communicate through body language or they may even be able to lipread; perhaps try both to see which they are receptive to, and continue from there. If they seem to be speaking a different language, you can either try speaking in a different tongue (should you know another) or again try body language. You may even know someone nearby who may be able to help you out. 2.2 Describe the factors to consider when promoting effective communication? 3. Be able to overcome barriers to communication 3.1 Explain how people from different backgrounds may use and/or interpret communication methods in different ways 3.2 Identify barriers to effective communication 3.5 Explain how to access extra support or services to enable individuals to communicate effectively Here are some ways of access extra support or services. There is a number of services that can accessed to support communication. Interpreters Translators signers aduocators There is lots of different specialisr equipment for people that need them. Induction loops braille embossers and printers makaton. The local government body should provide language support services. British sign language interpreters deaf blind interpreters lip speakers or readers You can find services y utilised by educationa; and health sevices through a booking system. There is a local authority educational deportment access to a tea support specialistis indvding speech and language therapists. You can also find information on the internt various specialist website.

Analysis of Linguistic Theory in Transpotting (1996)

Analysis of Linguistic Theory in Transpotting (1996) Introduction The main argument of this dissertation is that the language of John Hodges screenplay Trainspotting, even though it appears to contain sub-cultural social contexts, cannot be categorised within the framework of linguistic theory as representing a youth subculture. The verbal conflict formation in the text should be read as reflective of the larger worldview that verbal conflict behaviour is inevitable in all societies, as are the existence of social dialectsand the usage of common slang. 1. Gumperz Term: Speech Community In his 1982 volume Discourse strategies, John Gumperz discusses the concept of a speech community. He defines speech community as a system of organized diversity held together by common norms and aspirations. He also states that the speech community must form the starting point of linguistic analysis. He further states that although members of the same speech community may differ in terms of their beliefs and their behaviours, that this is a normal variation and has been shown to be a systematic regularity of communities. For, the most part, however, members of speech communities generally share norms of evaluation. Gumperz stresses the point that it is not the individual speakers of a language that make up a speech community. He cites the theories of Saussure and others of that time period to support this statement: It was believed that these reflect either momentary preferences, personal idiosyncrasies, or expressive or emotive tendencies, which rely on universal signalling mechani sms and are thus not part of the system of meaningful sounds by which substantive information is conveyed (11-12). According to Gumperz, although the ability to form grammatical statements is common to all speakers of a certain language, the more complex knowledge of contextualization convention varies widely. He also points out that contextualization is not something that can be attained through formal education or reading, but must be learned through face-to-face interactions. Discourse at this level is marked by conventions that reflect prolonged interactive experience by individuals cooperating in institutionalized settings in the pursuit of shared goals in friendship, occupational and similar networks of relationships (209). Language and social identity, a volume published in the same year, was co-authored by Jenny Cook-Gumperz. In this work, he discusses the role of communicative skills in our society, asserting that they have been radically altered. It is absolutely essential for individuals in todays society to be capable of managing or adapting to a variety of diverse communicative situations. In addition, they must be able to interact freely with people who are virtual strangers to them. These abilities are an absolute necessity if one is to acquire a sense of personal control and to establish a sense of order in ones life. The cause for this change, he asserts, is the bureaucratization of public institutions, which have become increasingly pervasive in our day-to-day lives. He sees this as a result of our post-industrial society and states that it exists in both Western and non-Western countries. The skills required to function at this level are far more complex, but must be mastered if one is to function autonomously as a member of a speech community. 2. Hallidays Notion: Antilanguages In Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation oflanguage and meaning, M.A.K. Halliday explains the initial acquisitionof language as part of the development of the child as a socialcreature: Language is the main channel through which the patterns ofliving are transmitted to him, through which he learns to act as amember of a â€Å"society† (9). The child does this, she goes on toexplain, through associations with family, neighbourhood, and varioussocial groups; these comprise the foundation on which the child baseshis or her belief systems and values. The child does not learn these things directly, but ratherindirectly, Halliday explains. It is through the accumulatedexperience of numerous small events, insignificant in themselves, inwhich his behaviour is guided and controlled, and in the course ofwhich he contracts and develops personal relationships of all kinds'(9). The unifying factor here is language; language is the mediumthrough which all of this takes place. She develops her discussion further by introducing the notion of anantisociety which is in direct contrast to society, describing theantisociety as a conscious alternative that can also be viewed as aform of resistance. This resistance can take a number of forms. It canbe passive, in which case it will appear, at least outwardly, to causeno harm. On the other hand, it can be actively hostile to the point ofcausing actual destruction. The antilanguage is the language of the antisociety. It isparallel to the antisociety, which of course generates it. Bothlanguage and its counterpart, antilanguage, share equal linguisticsignificance. According to Halliday, either pair, a society and itslanguage or an antisociety and its (anti) language, is, equally, aninstance of the prevailing sociolinguistic order (164). Halliday describes the antilanguage as a form of resocialization,as a mechanism that creates an alternative reality. In this sense, shedoes not see it as a negative construct, but rather of reconstruction(170). The significant aspect of the language/antilanguage dynamicexists in the distance between the two, and in the tension that iscaused by that distance. The individual may function in either worldand may go back and forth with relative comfort. In this sense, it mayseem that he is living a double existence. Still, it should not be forgotten that both aspects—language andantilanguage—originate from the same place. Because of this commonbackground, there is continuity between them which parallels thatbetween society and antisociety. Not only is there a continuity, thereis also tension. Hence, although the languages may be expressed bymembers of different social strata, they are both parts of the samesocial system. In other words, the antisociety is, in terms ofLà ©vi-Strausss distinction between metaphor and metonymy, metonymic tosociety—it is an extension of it, within the social system (Halliday175). Thus, basically, an antilanguage is just another language. However,the world it exists in is a counter-reality, which in itself hascertain implications: It implies preoccupation with the definition anddefence of identity through the ritual functioning of the socialhierarchy. It implies a special conception of information and ofknowledge (172). In addition, there will be a certain amount of secrecy in anantilanguage; this is inherent in its nature. The reality in which itfunctions is a secret reality. Generally, the members of this realitydo have secrets. Often these secrets may have something of an illegalassociation to them. It is just as likely, however, that the secretsare not illegal, but merely lacking in respectability and socialsanction. They may be the secrets of a segment of the population whichexists at least partly in its fringes, although its members may notwant this known in the mainstream. The antisociety is, then, a metaphorfor the society, and it joins society at the level of the social system. The perspective of the antilanguage is generally that of adistinctly different view of the world, one which is thereforepotentially threatening, if it does not coincide with ones own'(Halliday 179). The purpose of the antilanguage is primarily fordisplay as its speakers struggle to maintain their counter-realitywhile existing within the confines of the world. An antilanguage, according to Halliday, brings into sharp reliefthe role of language as a realization of the power structure ofsociety (181). The antilanguages of countercultures, such as prisonsand criminal networks, are often full are defined against the socialstructure. Essentially, they are defined by what they are not. This isnot unlike the jargon or nomenclature of certain highly-specialisedprofessions, which may in some sense be seen as having a similar—thoughacceptable by society—counter-reality. Members of mainstream society who are speakers solely of standarddialect may have negative reactions to antilanguage. However, they willusually express this indirectly. For example, they may state that theydont like the vowels as they are pronounced by the speakers of theantilanguage, when in essence what they are saying is that they dontlike the values held by the speakers of the antilanguage. 3. Labovs Finding: The Concept of Sounding Labov and his colleagues (Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and JohnLewis) studied the vernacular of young American black males in theinner city areas of New York. The youths ranged in age from eight to 19years old, and they spoke a relatively uniform grammar, the language ofstreet culture. Labov and his team used a variety of methods to gather their data,the most important of which was long-term participant-observation withpeer groups (via). They collected tape-recorded conversations that tookplace on school buses, field trips, and parties—essentially, any typeof gathering where the youths got together and socialized. They thencarefully analyzed the data they collected, noting the patterns theyfound in speech events. Two examples of these exchanges are below. A: Eat shit. B: Hop on the spoon. A. Move over. B. I cant, your mothers already there. The following exchange is between two adolescents, John and Willie, with an observer (Rel) looking on: John: Who father wear raggedy drawers? Willie: Yeh the ones with so many holes in them when-a-you walk they whistle? Rel: Oh . . . shi-it! When you walk they whistle! Oh shit! (326) Given the insults against the person, his family, his poverty, aperson who is not a member of a given culture might expect thesituation to escalate into physical conflict. However, Labov points out that these are actually ritual insults. Herefers to this as sounding, which he describes as a complex patternof verbal conflict. Sounding has also been called playing the dozensor signifying. It consists of a dialogue that is usually performedfor an audience of observers who are usually peers. The dialogue itselfconsists of ritual insults, most of which are directed towards theother speakers mother, self, or housing situation. The speakers tradethese sounds back and forth as though in competition, and theaudience looks on. Occasionally an audience member will comment, approve, ordisapprove of the statements of one or both speakers. Labov points outthat the audience is an essential ingredient to this process: It istrue that one person can sound against another without a third personbeing present, but the presupposition that this is public behavior caneasily be heard in the verbal style. The presence of an audience has a definite impact on the speechevent. The sounds are no longer spoken in a direct, face-to-faceconversational mode when others are present. The speakers voices tendto be raised and they become more projected, suggesting full awarenessthat the audience is there. In the second exchange above, Rel makes acomment on Willies insult, praising it. In a sounding session, Labovpoints out, everything is public—nothing significant happens withoutdrawing comment. The rules and patterning of this particular speechevent are therefore open for our inspection (327). In fact, theexistence of an audience is considered a defining factor, according toLabov. A primary difference between sounding and other speech events isthat most sounds are evaluated overtly and immediately by theaudience (325). By closely analyzing the discourse of this segment of thepopulation, Labov was able to isolate certain characteristics and todiscern patterns in the structure of this ritua l exchange of insults.After a while, the fundamental difference that divides ritual insultsand personal insults became clear. For example, there was a very clearopposition between an insult that is made during this ritualperformance and an actual, personal insult. The appropriate responsesare quite different: a personal insult is answered by a denial, excuse,or mitigation, whereas a sound or ritual insult is answered by longersequences (335). The ritual insults must be exaggerated to thepoint of being ridiculous and clearly untrue. This is clear to both thespeakers and to the audience that is following the exchange. If theinsults violate this rule—for example, one speaker makes a comment thatis both derogatory and which is known to be accurate—the ritual mayturn into conflict. The speech event we call sounding is not isolated from other formsof verbal interaction: it can merge with them or become transformedinto a series of personal insults, asserts Labov (330). He points outthat when ritual insult passes over into a different level ofdiscourse, that of interpersonal conflict, the difference between thetwo is unmistakably clear. Audience reaction is a key tool in assessing sounds. Laughter isthe primary mark of affirmation. A really successful sound will beevaluated by overt commentsAnother, even more forceful mode ofapproving sounds is t repeat the striking part of the sound oneself'(325). Negative reactions to sounds happen with a similar frequency andare equally overt. At the end of any sounding contest, all members,speakers and audience alike, are keenly aware of the who has come outahead. 4-a. Goffmans Notion: Face in Politeness Goffman writes that the ritual order seems to be organizedbasically on accommodative lines (109). These lines allow individualsto build and maintain illusions about themselves, and are not governedby laws or justice. Rather, Goffman asserts, the main principle of theritual order is not justice but face (110). Hence, the governingprinciple is what allows individuals to save face. Individuals whocross the line do not suffer retribution, but rather receive what isnecessary to bolster the illusion of self to which they are committed. The ways in which an individuals may insulate themselves aremyriad. Some of them include half-truths, illusions, andrationalizations. Therefore, not only are they able to convincethemselves of the beliefs necessary to his continued sense of self,they are further bolstered by the support of those close to them. Thusthey continue to believe in the illusion of self, and this illusion isfurther maintained and reinforced by the members of their immediate,intimate circle (109). 4-b. Does face exist in the discourse when verbal conflict occurs? An incidence of verbal conflict requires the individual uponwhom the offense has been committed to react in some way. The type ofreaction will depend on the level of offense. One mechanism for savingface is avoidance. That is, if a person is offended by anotherindividual, but can let the incident go without losing too much face,then it is likely that the offended person will let the situation go.He or she may rationalize this by telling themselves that they willdeal with the offender at some point in the future, perhaps when thecircumstances are optimal—although it is just as likely that when thispoint in time presents itself, no action will be taken. If the offense committed against the person is great, an actionmust be taken by the offended person. They may decide to withdraw fromthe situation and may avoid future encounters with individuals whobreak the ritual code. Alternately, they may arrange to have theoffending person removed, thus ensuring that there will be no furthercommunication necessary with this individual. Societies must mobilize their members as self-regulatingparticipants in social encounters Goffman asserts. Ritual is one wayof doing this. Members of society are taught the importance of face,and that they should value such qualities as pride, honor, dignity, andpoise (110). Maintaining face then is a one way in which individuals protectthemselves and maintain their illusions of who they are and where theystand in the social hierarchy. This does not mean that face is realor authentic: Universal human nature is not a very human thing,asserts Goffman. By acquiring it, the person becomes a kind ofconstruct, built up not from inner psychic propensities but from moralrules that are impressed upon him from without (110). This constructis necessary for the individuals sense of self and helps him tomaintain the ritual equilibrium that is essential for his survival. 5. Brown and Levinson and the politeness phenomena Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson derive their definition offace from Goffman. They also include the English folk term, whichincludes the concept of being embarrassed or humiliated—or, simply put,losing face. They explain this further: Thus face is something thatis emotionally invested, and that can be lost, maintained, or enhanced,and must be constantly attended to in interaction (Brown and Levinson61). Brown and Levinson also point out that one individuals sense offace is dependent upon the continued maintenance of everyone elsessense of face. A threat to one individuals face, then, becomes athreat to all. Individuals in the community soon learn that it is intheir best interest to defend not only their own faces, but those ofthe other members of the community as well. Brown and Levinson discuss two kinds of linguistic politeness: positive politeness and negative politeness. Central to our model is a highly abstract notion of â€Å"face†which consists of two specific kinds of desires(â€Å"face-wants†) attributed by interactants to one another: thedesire to be unimpeded in ones actions (negative face), and the desire (in some respects) to be approved of (positive face)(13). Brown and Levinson offer fifteen strategies that speakers use to establish positive politeness: [H= addressee] 1. notice, attend to Hs interests, wants, needs, goods 2. exaggerate interest, approval, sympathy with H 3. intensify interest to H 4. use in-group identity markers -address forms -use of in-group language or dialect -use of jargon or slang -contraction and ellipsis 5. seek agreement 6. avoid disagreement 7. presuppose/raise/assert common ground–gossip, small talk 8. joke 9. assert or presuppose Ss knowledge of and concern for Hs wants 10. offer, promise 11. be optimistic 12. include both S H in the activity, using we 13. give (or ask for reasons) 14. assume or assert reciprocity 15. give gifts–goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation If positive politeness is defined as redress directed to theaddressees positive face, then negative politeness is redressiveaction addressed to the addressees negative face: his want to have hisfreedom of action unhindered and his attention unimpeded (129).Strategies used by speakers in the process of establishing negativeface include: 1. be conventionally indirect–opposing tensions, indirect speech acts 2. question, hedge 3. be pessimistic 4. minimize the imposition 5. give deference 6. apologize 7. impersonalize S H 8. state the FTA [face-threatening act] as a general rules 9. nominalize 10. go on record as incurring a debt, or as not indebting H Brown and Levinson have a third category for speech actions. Thisone is off record. A communicative act is done off record if it isdoe in such a way that it is not possible to attribute only one clearcommunicative intention to the act (211). 1. give hints 2. give assocation clues 3. presuppose 4. understate 5. overstate 6. use tautologies 7. use contradictions 8. be ironic 9. use metaphors 10. use rhetorical questions 11. be ambiguous 12. be vague 13. over-generalize 14. displace H 15. be incomplete, use ellipsis Off record politeness is a sort of hybrid strategy that falls in between the two and is difficult, if not impossible to definitively categorize (Brown and Levinson, 230). 6a. Grimshaws concept of conflict talk In the introduction to his 1990 volume Conflict talk:Sociolinguistic investigations of arguments in conversations, AllenGrimshaw writes: Conflict talk is at the same time so complex a phenomenon andone so deeply implicated in every dimension of human sociallife that it would be possible to identify dozens of reasonswhy it should be a focus of systematic inquiry; by thesame token one would be left wondering why its study hasbeen so neglected (3). Grimshaw points out that conflicts may have as their focus a numberof subjects, including beliefs, objects (things), persons, groups, orinstitutions (294). Interestingly, he asserts that as long as conflicttalk is sustained and the participants do not withdraw, conflicts need not increase in hostility. The increase in hostilityseems to occur only with an increased sense of intensity on both sides 6b. Goodwin and Goodwin: interstitial argument In their essay Interstitial argument, Charles Goodwin andMarjorie Harness Goodwin present the findings of their researchregarding verbal conflict. During the course of their research theywere able to closely study the relationship between participants andtheir local environment. One thing they found is that despite thedisruptive behavior that accompanies an argument, the participants payextremely close attention to the details surrounding them. During theargument, what goes on is actually a process of very intricatecoordination between the parties who are opposing each other (85). For a year and a half M.H. Goodwin audiotaped a group of urbanblack children as they played together in the street. This was onesegment of a larger project in which a range of speech activities werebeing studies. These activities included gossip, arguments, stories,and directives, and similar activities. Specifically, four childrenwere audiotaped during oppositional exchanges, and these exchanges werethen transcribed and analyzed. One of the issues at hand was aslingshot battle. All exchanges, from the planning stages to theselection of teams to the preparation of weapons, were studied inmeticulous detail. From these data Goodwin examined content shift andcontext within argument, multi-party argument, and piggybacking, oraffiliation in argument. Analysing their findings, the Goodwins discovered that by followingthe sequence of utterances, it was clear that the four individualsinvolved in the exchange did not have equal positions (107). It seemedclear that each side had a primary spokesman, followed by a secondindividual who followed the behavior of the primary spokesman. This ledGoodwin and Goodwin to conclude that the structures utilised in theprocess of negotiating opposition also provide resources for theparticipants, enabling them to duplicate types of social organization.Thus, the process of arguing essentially gives the participants resources for reproducing a life that is greater than that of the argument itself (113). Finally, Goodwin and Goodwin write that it has been argued that thetalk people produce during their dealings with each other is oftenconsidered to be too disorderly to be properly organized and studied.In response to this, they write that in analysing the data from thisstudy they found anything but disorder. The participants themselves,within the space of a very few turns, produce a range of systematicpermutations on a basic structure with a precision that would tax theingenuity of even the most inventive experimental design to replicate'(114). 6c. Schiffrin: argument: the role of opinions and stories Deborah Schiffrin asserts that everyday forms of talk are guidedby norms of co-operation and competition. Even argument, a form of talkwhich might seem to be the paradigm example of conflict talk, can be aco-operative way of speaking as well as (or instead of) a competitiveway of speaking (241). Schriffin uses Goffmans concepts of footing and frame asadditional links. Footing and frames are very similar to eachother. Schriffin explains the frame as the definition of thesituation, and the footing as the sort of alignments taken up byparticipation (242). She then goes on to explore opinions and stories. With regard toopinions, she admits that it is not always possible to find linguisticfeatures which mark a declarative statement as the presentation of an opinion, and that because of this,one needs to look elsewhere, and she presents her criteria fordiscerning what an opinion actually consists of, concluding thatopinions are unverifiable, internal, subjective depictions of anexternal worldthe facts presented by the author cannot remainundisputed, but the principals stance toward that proposition cannotbe/ disputed 248-9). This, she explains, also gives opinions aparadoxical status in argument, such that they can either initiate orend an argument (249). She then discusses the role of stories, breaking them down into: †¢ selective interpretation †¢ deictic (time) shifts †¢ evaluation †¢ contextualization First of all, she asserts, one must consider that theinterpretation of stories is highly selective. Individuals will choosecertain stories and interpret them in a way that justifies certainbehaviors and actions. Second, there are deictic, or time shifts, to beconsidered. For example, frequently a speaker must re-orient him orherself back to the actual time of the story, to a time when they mighthave had less knowledge or information about the story. The thirdaspect of stories that Schiffrin finds significant are the evaluativedevices used by the storyteller. These devices can be phonological,grammatical, or textual in nature. Finally, she asserts, stories arepresented as frames within certain events are explained,contextualizing them. Text Analysis on Verbal Conflict, using examples from the screenplay of Trainspotting 1. Overview. Trainspotting is a coming-of-age story in story of a group ofheroin-addicted young people from Edinburgh. It is a very vividdepiction of junkie life as well as a cross-section of life in the 90s.The title of the book, Trainspotting, is also a term used in theBritish Isles for people who, as a hobby, keep track of local trainschedules with excessive vigilance. Essentially, the term is synonymouswith wasting time, making this activity a sort of metaphor for heroinaddiction. Both activities are essentially pointless and futile. Drugs are a central focus of the story, and in particular (but notexclusively) heroin. This is very clear from the language that is used.This can be noted from the frequency of the occurrence of terms whichrelate to heroin. There are numerous references to the sale,acquisition, preparation, injection, and withdrawal of heroin. Thedrug-related words which appear with highest frequency include hit,junk, shot, and inject, each of which appear more than ten times.Other commonly used drug words include of course the drugitself—heroin—along with its many variations, such as smack and skag. However, despite the omnipresence of drug and drug-relatedactivities, the story does not set out to glorify heroin use; neitherdoes it condemn or moralize use of the drug. It does, however, give aclear depiction of the bleak environment this group of young peoplemust survive in. The area is working-class. References are made to DSSchecks and Giro, which are terms associated with the life of povertyand struggle. This dismal backdrop, and the fact that they have littlehope of physical escape, makes their wreckless behaviour a bit moreunderstandable. Their addictions seem to be the most reliable, if notthe only, escape. Trainspotting is very definitely a movie about youth culture. Itshows an intricate understanding of the issues and influences uponyouth at that period in time, and it realistically reflects thecultural experiences had by young people. Trainspotting appeals to acult-prone youth because it contains the elements that comprisefoundations of subculture in British culture. Alt hough other worksappealed to the youth culture of that period, Trainspotting enjoyed apopularity that exceeded most of them. This may have been due to itsauthenticity in replicating the youth culture experience. When it first premiered (and even now), the graphic detail ofits language and content was found to be rather shocking by some.However, it resonated very strongly with anyone familiar with drugculture. It reflects, sometimes quite graphically, the underbelly ofEdinburgh in the 1980s, and focuses, as mentioned earlier, mainly onone group of heroin addicts, as well as their friends and families.Their experiences as they struggle with very real issues that many canidentify with: life, work, family, death, the struggle to survive.Other issues—ones that may not have been part of mainstream culture—arepresented as well: AIDS, heroin overdose, heroin withdrawal, and raves,among others. The use of dialect is very powerful in Trainspotting. Inaddition, the social, political, and economic views expressed by thecharacters would have mirrored the views of societys fringemembers—specifically members of the youth and/or drug cultures. Renton and his mates do not rebel against society, but they doattempt to transcend in their destructive ways. Renton often parodiesfamous Thatcher quotes through his â€Å"Choose life† rants and frequentcomments regarding the emptiness of society, as demonstrated in thefollowing examples from the screenplay: †¢ Choose life. Choose a job. Choose a career. Choose a family.Choose a fucking big television, choose washing machines, cars, compactdisc players, and electrical tin openers. †¢ Choose good health, low cholesterol, and dental insurance. Choosefixed-interest mortgage repayments. Choose a starter home. Choose yourfriends. †¢ Choose leisurewear and matching luggage. Choose a three-piece suiton hire purchase in a range of fucking fabrics. Choose DIY andwondering who the fuck you are on a Sunday morning. Choose sitting onthat couch watching mind-numbing, spirit-crushing game shows, stuffingfucking junk food into your mouth. Choose rotting away at the endof it all, pishing your last in a miserable home, nothing more than anembarrassment to the selfish, fucked-up brats you have spawned toreplace yourself. Choose your future. Choose life. †¢ I chose not to choose life. I chose something else. And thereasons? There are no reasons. Who needs reasons when youve gotheroin? The lifestyle portrayed in Trainspotting has been described asrepresenting a detached subculture of British youth. However, thereis no evidence in the screenplay to support this assertion. The youngcharacters in this story simply attempt to survive in the largerenvironment by adapting in whatever ways they can, primarily throughmusic and through drugs. They do not attempt to change the status quo,nor are they champions of social reform. They simply react to the bleaksocial conditions that they were born into. Unable to physically escape their environment, they find release in music, drugs, alcohol, and sex. Renton is a prime example of this. He is not proactive, he issimply a survivor. He assesses situations with the manipulative eye ofan addict, and he reacts accordingly, taking advantage when he sees theopportunity. He and his contemporaries are merely representative ofyouth who are struggling for a sense of identity. Their mindset isambiguous; they react to outside societal pressures by employing theirchosen means. But they cannot be considered as a youth subculture basedon their language that has been described in the previous section. Language T Analysis of Linguistic Theory in Transpotting (1996) Analysis of Linguistic Theory in Transpotting (1996) Introduction The main argument of this dissertation is that the language of John Hodges screenplay Trainspotting, even though it appears to contain sub-cultural social contexts, cannot be categorised within the framework of linguistic theory as representing a youth subculture. The verbal conflict formation in the text should be read as reflective of the larger worldview that verbal conflict behaviour is inevitable in all societies, as are the existence of social dialectsand the usage of common slang. 1. Gumperz Term: Speech Community In his 1982 volume Discourse strategies, John Gumperz discusses the concept of a speech community. He defines speech community as a system of organized diversity held together by common norms and aspirations. He also states that the speech community must form the starting point of linguistic analysis. He further states that although members of the same speech community may differ in terms of their beliefs and their behaviours, that this is a normal variation and has been shown to be a systematic regularity of communities. For, the most part, however, members of speech communities generally share norms of evaluation. Gumperz stresses the point that it is not the individual speakers of a language that make up a speech community. He cites the theories of Saussure and others of that time period to support this statement: It was believed that these reflect either momentary preferences, personal idiosyncrasies, or expressive or emotive tendencies, which rely on universal signalling mechani sms and are thus not part of the system of meaningful sounds by which substantive information is conveyed (11-12). According to Gumperz, although the ability to form grammatical statements is common to all speakers of a certain language, the more complex knowledge of contextualization convention varies widely. He also points out that contextualization is not something that can be attained through formal education or reading, but must be learned through face-to-face interactions. Discourse at this level is marked by conventions that reflect prolonged interactive experience by individuals cooperating in institutionalized settings in the pursuit of shared goals in friendship, occupational and similar networks of relationships (209). Language and social identity, a volume published in the same year, was co-authored by Jenny Cook-Gumperz. In this work, he discusses the role of communicative skills in our society, asserting that they have been radically altered. It is absolutely essential for individuals in todays society to be capable of managing or adapting to a variety of diverse communicative situations. In addition, they must be able to interact freely with people who are virtual strangers to them. These abilities are an absolute necessity if one is to acquire a sense of personal control and to establish a sense of order in ones life. The cause for this change, he asserts, is the bureaucratization of public institutions, which have become increasingly pervasive in our day-to-day lives. He sees this as a result of our post-industrial society and states that it exists in both Western and non-Western countries. The skills required to function at this level are far more complex, but must be mastered if one is to function autonomously as a member of a speech community. 2. Hallidays Notion: Antilanguages In Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation oflanguage and meaning, M.A.K. Halliday explains the initial acquisitionof language as part of the development of the child as a socialcreature: Language is the main channel through which the patterns ofliving are transmitted to him, through which he learns to act as amember of a â€Å"society† (9). The child does this, she goes on toexplain, through associations with family, neighbourhood, and varioussocial groups; these comprise the foundation on which the child baseshis or her belief systems and values. The child does not learn these things directly, but ratherindirectly, Halliday explains. It is through the accumulatedexperience of numerous small events, insignificant in themselves, inwhich his behaviour is guided and controlled, and in the course ofwhich he contracts and develops personal relationships of all kinds'(9). The unifying factor here is language; language is the mediumthrough which all of this takes place. She develops her discussion further by introducing the notion of anantisociety which is in direct contrast to society, describing theantisociety as a conscious alternative that can also be viewed as aform of resistance. This resistance can take a number of forms. It canbe passive, in which case it will appear, at least outwardly, to causeno harm. On the other hand, it can be actively hostile to the point ofcausing actual destruction. The antilanguage is the language of the antisociety. It isparallel to the antisociety, which of course generates it. Bothlanguage and its counterpart, antilanguage, share equal linguisticsignificance. According to Halliday, either pair, a society and itslanguage or an antisociety and its (anti) language, is, equally, aninstance of the prevailing sociolinguistic order (164). Halliday describes the antilanguage as a form of resocialization,as a mechanism that creates an alternative reality. In this sense, shedoes not see it as a negative construct, but rather of reconstruction(170). The significant aspect of the language/antilanguage dynamicexists in the distance between the two, and in the tension that iscaused by that distance. The individual may function in either worldand may go back and forth with relative comfort. In this sense, it mayseem that he is living a double existence. Still, it should not be forgotten that both aspects—language andantilanguage—originate from the same place. Because of this commonbackground, there is continuity between them which parallels thatbetween society and antisociety. Not only is there a continuity, thereis also tension. Hence, although the languages may be expressed bymembers of different social strata, they are both parts of the samesocial system. In other words, the antisociety is, in terms ofLà ©vi-Strausss distinction between metaphor and metonymy, metonymic tosociety—it is an extension of it, within the social system (Halliday175). Thus, basically, an antilanguage is just another language. However,the world it exists in is a counter-reality, which in itself hascertain implications: It implies preoccupation with the definition anddefence of identity through the ritual functioning of the socialhierarchy. It implies a special conception of information and ofknowledge (172). In addition, there will be a certain amount of secrecy in anantilanguage; this is inherent in its nature. The reality in which itfunctions is a secret reality. Generally, the members of this realitydo have secrets. Often these secrets may have something of an illegalassociation to them. It is just as likely, however, that the secretsare not illegal, but merely lacking in respectability and socialsanction. They may be the secrets of a segment of the population whichexists at least partly in its fringes, although its members may notwant this known in the mainstream. The antisociety is, then, a metaphorfor the society, and it joins society at the level of the social system. The perspective of the antilanguage is generally that of adistinctly different view of the world, one which is thereforepotentially threatening, if it does not coincide with ones own'(Halliday 179). The purpose of the antilanguage is primarily fordisplay as its speakers struggle to maintain their counter-realitywhile existing within the confines of the world. An antilanguage, according to Halliday, brings into sharp reliefthe role of language as a realization of the power structure ofsociety (181). The antilanguages of countercultures, such as prisonsand criminal networks, are often full are defined against the socialstructure. Essentially, they are defined by what they are not. This isnot unlike the jargon or nomenclature of certain highly-specialisedprofessions, which may in some sense be seen as having a similar—thoughacceptable by society—counter-reality. Members of mainstream society who are speakers solely of standarddialect may have negative reactions to antilanguage. However, they willusually express this indirectly. For example, they may state that theydont like the vowels as they are pronounced by the speakers of theantilanguage, when in essence what they are saying is that they dontlike the values held by the speakers of the antilanguage. 3. Labovs Finding: The Concept of Sounding Labov and his colleagues (Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and JohnLewis) studied the vernacular of young American black males in theinner city areas of New York. The youths ranged in age from eight to 19years old, and they spoke a relatively uniform grammar, the language ofstreet culture. Labov and his team used a variety of methods to gather their data,the most important of which was long-term participant-observation withpeer groups (via). They collected tape-recorded conversations that tookplace on school buses, field trips, and parties—essentially, any typeof gathering where the youths got together and socialized. They thencarefully analyzed the data they collected, noting the patterns theyfound in speech events. Two examples of these exchanges are below. A: Eat shit. B: Hop on the spoon. A. Move over. B. I cant, your mothers already there. The following exchange is between two adolescents, John and Willie, with an observer (Rel) looking on: John: Who father wear raggedy drawers? Willie: Yeh the ones with so many holes in them when-a-you walk they whistle? Rel: Oh . . . shi-it! When you walk they whistle! Oh shit! (326) Given the insults against the person, his family, his poverty, aperson who is not a member of a given culture might expect thesituation to escalate into physical conflict. However, Labov points out that these are actually ritual insults. Herefers to this as sounding, which he describes as a complex patternof verbal conflict. Sounding has also been called playing the dozensor signifying. It consists of a dialogue that is usually performedfor an audience of observers who are usually peers. The dialogue itselfconsists of ritual insults, most of which are directed towards theother speakers mother, self, or housing situation. The speakers tradethese sounds back and forth as though in competition, and theaudience looks on. Occasionally an audience member will comment, approve, ordisapprove of the statements of one or both speakers. Labov points outthat the audience is an essential ingredient to this process: It istrue that one person can sound against another without a third personbeing present, but the presupposition that this is public behavior caneasily be heard in the verbal style. The presence of an audience has a definite impact on the speechevent. The sounds are no longer spoken in a direct, face-to-faceconversational mode when others are present. The speakers voices tendto be raised and they become more projected, suggesting full awarenessthat the audience is there. In the second exchange above, Rel makes acomment on Willies insult, praising it. In a sounding session, Labovpoints out, everything is public—nothing significant happens withoutdrawing comment. The rules and patterning of this particular speechevent are therefore open for our inspection (327). In fact, theexistence of an audience is considered a defining factor, according toLabov. A primary difference between sounding and other speech events isthat most sounds are evaluated overtly and immediately by theaudience (325). By closely analyzing the discourse of this segment of thepopulation, Labov was able to isolate certain characteristics and todiscern patterns in the structure of this ritua l exchange of insults.After a while, the fundamental difference that divides ritual insultsand personal insults became clear. For example, there was a very clearopposition between an insult that is made during this ritualperformance and an actual, personal insult. The appropriate responsesare quite different: a personal insult is answered by a denial, excuse,or mitigation, whereas a sound or ritual insult is answered by longersequences (335). The ritual insults must be exaggerated to thepoint of being ridiculous and clearly untrue. This is clear to both thespeakers and to the audience that is following the exchange. If theinsults violate this rule—for example, one speaker makes a comment thatis both derogatory and which is known to be accurate—the ritual mayturn into conflict. The speech event we call sounding is not isolated from other formsof verbal interaction: it can merge with them or become transformedinto a series of personal insults, asserts Labov (330). He points outthat when ritual insult passes over into a different level ofdiscourse, that of interpersonal conflict, the difference between thetwo is unmistakably clear. Audience reaction is a key tool in assessing sounds. Laughter isthe primary mark of affirmation. A really successful sound will beevaluated by overt commentsAnother, even more forceful mode ofapproving sounds is t repeat the striking part of the sound oneself'(325). Negative reactions to sounds happen with a similar frequency andare equally overt. At the end of any sounding contest, all members,speakers and audience alike, are keenly aware of the who has come outahead. 4-a. Goffmans Notion: Face in Politeness Goffman writes that the ritual order seems to be organizedbasically on accommodative lines (109). These lines allow individualsto build and maintain illusions about themselves, and are not governedby laws or justice. Rather, Goffman asserts, the main principle of theritual order is not justice but face (110). Hence, the governingprinciple is what allows individuals to save face. Individuals whocross the line do not suffer retribution, but rather receive what isnecessary to bolster the illusion of self to which they are committed. The ways in which an individuals may insulate themselves aremyriad. Some of them include half-truths, illusions, andrationalizations. Therefore, not only are they able to convincethemselves of the beliefs necessary to his continued sense of self,they are further bolstered by the support of those close to them. Thusthey continue to believe in the illusion of self, and this illusion isfurther maintained and reinforced by the members of their immediate,intimate circle (109). 4-b. Does face exist in the discourse when verbal conflict occurs? An incidence of verbal conflict requires the individual uponwhom the offense has been committed to react in some way. The type ofreaction will depend on the level of offense. One mechanism for savingface is avoidance. That is, if a person is offended by anotherindividual, but can let the incident go without losing too much face,then it is likely that the offended person will let the situation go.He or she may rationalize this by telling themselves that they willdeal with the offender at some point in the future, perhaps when thecircumstances are optimal—although it is just as likely that when thispoint in time presents itself, no action will be taken. If the offense committed against the person is great, an actionmust be taken by the offended person. They may decide to withdraw fromthe situation and may avoid future encounters with individuals whobreak the ritual code. Alternately, they may arrange to have theoffending person removed, thus ensuring that there will be no furthercommunication necessary with this individual. Societies must mobilize their members as self-regulatingparticipants in social encounters Goffman asserts. Ritual is one wayof doing this. Members of society are taught the importance of face,and that they should value such qualities as pride, honor, dignity, andpoise (110). Maintaining face then is a one way in which individuals protectthemselves and maintain their illusions of who they are and where theystand in the social hierarchy. This does not mean that face is realor authentic: Universal human nature is not a very human thing,asserts Goffman. By acquiring it, the person becomes a kind ofconstruct, built up not from inner psychic propensities but from moralrules that are impressed upon him from without (110). This constructis necessary for the individuals sense of self and helps him tomaintain the ritual equilibrium that is essential for his survival. 5. Brown and Levinson and the politeness phenomena Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson derive their definition offace from Goffman. They also include the English folk term, whichincludes the concept of being embarrassed or humiliated—or, simply put,losing face. They explain this further: Thus face is something thatis emotionally invested, and that can be lost, maintained, or enhanced,and must be constantly attended to in interaction (Brown and Levinson61). Brown and Levinson also point out that one individuals sense offace is dependent upon the continued maintenance of everyone elsessense of face. A threat to one individuals face, then, becomes athreat to all. Individuals in the community soon learn that it is intheir best interest to defend not only their own faces, but those ofthe other members of the community as well. Brown and Levinson discuss two kinds of linguistic politeness: positive politeness and negative politeness. Central to our model is a highly abstract notion of â€Å"face†which consists of two specific kinds of desires(â€Å"face-wants†) attributed by interactants to one another: thedesire to be unimpeded in ones actions (negative face), and the desire (in some respects) to be approved of (positive face)(13). Brown and Levinson offer fifteen strategies that speakers use to establish positive politeness: [H= addressee] 1. notice, attend to Hs interests, wants, needs, goods 2. exaggerate interest, approval, sympathy with H 3. intensify interest to H 4. use in-group identity markers -address forms -use of in-group language or dialect -use of jargon or slang -contraction and ellipsis 5. seek agreement 6. avoid disagreement 7. presuppose/raise/assert common ground–gossip, small talk 8. joke 9. assert or presuppose Ss knowledge of and concern for Hs wants 10. offer, promise 11. be optimistic 12. include both S H in the activity, using we 13. give (or ask for reasons) 14. assume or assert reciprocity 15. give gifts–goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation If positive politeness is defined as redress directed to theaddressees positive face, then negative politeness is redressiveaction addressed to the addressees negative face: his want to have hisfreedom of action unhindered and his attention unimpeded (129).Strategies used by speakers in the process of establishing negativeface include: 1. be conventionally indirect–opposing tensions, indirect speech acts 2. question, hedge 3. be pessimistic 4. minimize the imposition 5. give deference 6. apologize 7. impersonalize S H 8. state the FTA [face-threatening act] as a general rules 9. nominalize 10. go on record as incurring a debt, or as not indebting H Brown and Levinson have a third category for speech actions. Thisone is off record. A communicative act is done off record if it isdoe in such a way that it is not possible to attribute only one clearcommunicative intention to the act (211). 1. give hints 2. give assocation clues 3. presuppose 4. understate 5. overstate 6. use tautologies 7. use contradictions 8. be ironic 9. use metaphors 10. use rhetorical questions 11. be ambiguous 12. be vague 13. over-generalize 14. displace H 15. be incomplete, use ellipsis Off record politeness is a sort of hybrid strategy that falls in between the two and is difficult, if not impossible to definitively categorize (Brown and Levinson, 230). 6a. Grimshaws concept of conflict talk In the introduction to his 1990 volume Conflict talk:Sociolinguistic investigations of arguments in conversations, AllenGrimshaw writes: Conflict talk is at the same time so complex a phenomenon andone so deeply implicated in every dimension of human sociallife that it would be possible to identify dozens of reasonswhy it should be a focus of systematic inquiry; by thesame token one would be left wondering why its study hasbeen so neglected (3). Grimshaw points out that conflicts may have as their focus a numberof subjects, including beliefs, objects (things), persons, groups, orinstitutions (294). Interestingly, he asserts that as long as conflicttalk is sustained and the participants do not withdraw, conflicts need not increase in hostility. The increase in hostilityseems to occur only with an increased sense of intensity on both sides 6b. Goodwin and Goodwin: interstitial argument In their essay Interstitial argument, Charles Goodwin andMarjorie Harness Goodwin present the findings of their researchregarding verbal conflict. During the course of their research theywere able to closely study the relationship between participants andtheir local environment. One thing they found is that despite thedisruptive behavior that accompanies an argument, the participants payextremely close attention to the details surrounding them. During theargument, what goes on is actually a process of very intricatecoordination between the parties who are opposing each other (85). For a year and a half M.H. Goodwin audiotaped a group of urbanblack children as they played together in the street. This was onesegment of a larger project in which a range of speech activities werebeing studies. These activities included gossip, arguments, stories,and directives, and similar activities. Specifically, four childrenwere audiotaped during oppositional exchanges, and these exchanges werethen transcribed and analyzed. One of the issues at hand was aslingshot battle. All exchanges, from the planning stages to theselection of teams to the preparation of weapons, were studied inmeticulous detail. From these data Goodwin examined content shift andcontext within argument, multi-party argument, and piggybacking, oraffiliation in argument. Analysing their findings, the Goodwins discovered that by followingthe sequence of utterances, it was clear that the four individualsinvolved in the exchange did not have equal positions (107). It seemedclear that each side had a primary spokesman, followed by a secondindividual who followed the behavior of the primary spokesman. This ledGoodwin and Goodwin to conclude that the structures utilised in theprocess of negotiating opposition also provide resources for theparticipants, enabling them to duplicate types of social organization.Thus, the process of arguing essentially gives the participants resources for reproducing a life that is greater than that of the argument itself (113). Finally, Goodwin and Goodwin write that it has been argued that thetalk people produce during their dealings with each other is oftenconsidered to be too disorderly to be properly organized and studied.In response to this, they write that in analysing the data from thisstudy they found anything but disorder. The participants themselves,within the space of a very few turns, produce a range of systematicpermutations on a basic structure with a precision that would tax theingenuity of even the most inventive experimental design to replicate'(114). 6c. Schiffrin: argument: the role of opinions and stories Deborah Schiffrin asserts that everyday forms of talk are guidedby norms of co-operation and competition. Even argument, a form of talkwhich might seem to be the paradigm example of conflict talk, can be aco-operative way of speaking as well as (or instead of) a competitiveway of speaking (241). Schriffin uses Goffmans concepts of footing and frame asadditional links. Footing and frames are very similar to eachother. Schriffin explains the frame as the definition of thesituation, and the footing as the sort of alignments taken up byparticipation (242). She then goes on to explore opinions and stories. With regard toopinions, she admits that it is not always possible to find linguisticfeatures which mark a declarative statement as the presentation of an opinion, and that because of this,one needs to look elsewhere, and she presents her criteria fordiscerning what an opinion actually consists of, concluding thatopinions are unverifiable, internal, subjective depictions of anexternal worldthe facts presented by the author cannot remainundisputed, but the principals stance toward that proposition cannotbe/ disputed 248-9). This, she explains, also gives opinions aparadoxical status in argument, such that they can either initiate orend an argument (249). She then discusses the role of stories, breaking them down into: †¢ selective interpretation †¢ deictic (time) shifts †¢ evaluation †¢ contextualization First of all, she asserts, one must consider that theinterpretation of stories is highly selective. Individuals will choosecertain stories and interpret them in a way that justifies certainbehaviors and actions. Second, there are deictic, or time shifts, to beconsidered. For example, frequently a speaker must re-orient him orherself back to the actual time of the story, to a time when they mighthave had less knowledge or information about the story. The thirdaspect of stories that Schiffrin finds significant are the evaluativedevices used by the storyteller. These devices can be phonological,grammatical, or textual in nature. Finally, she asserts, stories arepresented as frames within certain events are explained,contextualizing them. Text Analysis on Verbal Conflict, using examples from the screenplay of Trainspotting 1. Overview. Trainspotting is a coming-of-age story in story of a group ofheroin-addicted young people from Edinburgh. It is a very vividdepiction of junkie life as well as a cross-section of life in the 90s.The title of the book, Trainspotting, is also a term used in theBritish Isles for people who, as a hobby, keep track of local trainschedules with excessive vigilance. Essentially, the term is synonymouswith wasting time, making this activity a sort of metaphor for heroinaddiction. Both activities are essentially pointless and futile. Drugs are a central focus of the story, and in particular (but notexclusively) heroin. This is very clear from the language that is used.This can be noted from the frequency of the occurrence of terms whichrelate to heroin. There are numerous references to the sale,acquisition, preparation, injection, and withdrawal of heroin. Thedrug-related words which appear with highest frequency include hit,junk, shot, and inject, each of which appear more than ten times.Other commonly used drug words include of course the drugitself—heroin—along with its many variations, such as smack and skag. However, despite the omnipresence of drug and drug-relatedactivities, the story does not set out to glorify heroin use; neitherdoes it condemn or moralize use of the drug. It does, however, give aclear depiction of the bleak environment this group of young peoplemust survive in. The area is working-class. References are made to DSSchecks and Giro, which are terms associated with the life of povertyand struggle. This dismal backdrop, and the fact that they have littlehope of physical escape, makes their wreckless behaviour a bit moreunderstandable. Their addictions seem to be the most reliable, if notthe only, escape. Trainspotting is very definitely a movie about youth culture. Itshows an intricate understanding of the issues and influences uponyouth at that period in time, and it realistically reflects thecultural experiences had by young people. Trainspotting appeals to acult-prone youth because it contains the elements that comprisefoundations of subculture in British culture. Alt hough other worksappealed to the youth culture of that period, Trainspotting enjoyed apopularity that exceeded most of them. This may have been due to itsauthenticity in replicating the youth culture experience. When it first premiered (and even now), the graphic detail ofits language and content was found to be rather shocking by some.However, it resonated very strongly with anyone familiar with drugculture. It reflects, sometimes quite graphically, the underbelly ofEdinburgh in the 1980s, and focuses, as mentioned earlier, mainly onone group of heroin addicts, as well as their friends and families.Their experiences as they struggle with very real issues that many canidentify with: life, work, family, death, the struggle to survive.Other issues—ones that may not have been part of mainstream culture—arepresented as well: AIDS, heroin overdose, heroin withdrawal, and raves,among others. The use of dialect is very powerful in Trainspotting. Inaddition, the social, political, and economic views expressed by thecharacters would have mirrored the views of societys fringemembers—specifically members of the youth and/or drug cultures. Renton and his mates do not rebel against society, but they doattempt to transcend in their destructive ways. Renton often parodiesfamous Thatcher quotes through his â€Å"Choose life† rants and frequentcomments regarding the emptiness of society, as demonstrated in thefollowing examples from the screenplay: †¢ Choose life. Choose a job. Choose a career. Choose a family.Choose a fucking big television, choose washing machines, cars, compactdisc players, and electrical tin openers. †¢ Choose good health, low cholesterol, and dental insurance. Choosefixed-interest mortgage repayments. Choose a starter home. Choose yourfriends. †¢ Choose leisurewear and matching luggage. Choose a three-piece suiton hire purchase in a range of fucking fabrics. Choose DIY andwondering who the fuck you are on a Sunday morning. Choose sitting onthat couch watching mind-numbing, spirit-crushing game shows, stuffingfucking junk food into your mouth. Choose rotting away at the endof it all, pishing your last in a miserable home, nothing more than anembarrassment to the selfish, fucked-up brats you have spawned toreplace yourself. Choose your future. Choose life. †¢ I chose not to choose life. I chose something else. And thereasons? There are no reasons. Who needs reasons when youve gotheroin? The lifestyle portrayed in Trainspotting has been described asrepresenting a detached subculture of British youth. However, thereis no evidence in the screenplay to support this assertion. The youngcharacters in this story simply attempt to survive in the largerenvironment by adapting in whatever ways they can, primarily throughmusic and through drugs. They do not attempt to change the status quo,nor are they champions of social reform. They simply react to the bleaksocial conditions that they were born into. Unable to physically escape their environment, they find release in music, drugs, alcohol, and sex. Renton is a prime example of this. He is not proactive, he issimply a survivor. He assesses situations with the manipulative eye ofan addict, and he reacts accordingly, taking advantage when he sees theopportunity. He and his contemporaries are merely representative ofyouth who are struggling for a sense of identity. Their mindset isambiguous; they react to outside societal pressures by employing theirchosen means. But they cannot be considered as a youth subculture basedon their language that has been described in the previous section. Language T

British Broadcasting Company (BBC)

British Broadcasting Company (BBC) The British Broadcasting Company (BBC) was established on October 18, 1922. It was established under the hands of some wireless manufacturers including Guglielmo Marconi (Marconi), inventor of the radio. In 1927, the companys name was changed to the British Broadcasting Corporation. The BBC is the largest and popular broadcasting companies in the world. The BBC London office alone has 10,000 employees. It is publicly-owned and funded by a television license fee that everyone with a television has to pay. The structure of the BBC is very complex. There are more than 150 subsidiaries and joint ventures, divided into 16 main divisions and out of which nine are broadcasting divisions. In Britain the BBC has got eight television channels and ten radio networks along with 46 local and national radio stations. It has its own website called online site bbc.co.uk. The nine broadcasting divisions are: * Television * Radio and music * News * National and regions * Sports * Factual and learning * Drama, Entertainment and CBBC * New media and technology * BBC world service and global news The BBC networks (like BBC1, BBC3, and Radio 1) are managed by these nine areas. The other five divisions provide the support to program-making and channel-running. Without these the BBC couldnt function. * BBC People * Finance, Property and Business affairs * Marketing, Communications and Audiences * Policy and legal * Strategy and distribution Literature review: Strategic management is a systematic analysis of external and internal environmental factors in order to provide necessary information for effective management practices. In short the strategic management process is explained as below: 1) Formation of vision 2) Preparing mission statement with respect to vision 3) Framing objectives with respect to mission 4) Developing strategies to achieve objectives 5) Implementing strategies 6) Evaluating performance. Cultural web of BBC: Aligning your organizational cultural with strategy. Culture determines how we do the things around us. Once organization adopts some ways of doing particular things in a particular manner and people following it makes the culture. It is very difficult to change the culture of an organization, but dyke was very much success in changing the culture of BBC from bureaucratic to clan control. The difficulties associated with BBC are: 1) Launch of ITV (independent Television) has decreased BBCS market share to as low as 28% 2) Reduced viewers because of the introduction of satellite and cable television in the UK. 3) In 1990 BBCS in- house production department was affected by the broadcasting act of 1990, which states that all television channels are required to source 25% of their television programs from independent producers. 4) The another problem faced by the BBC was low employee morale 5) The work is decentralized 6) No co-ordination between employees of the firm was the major problem 7) There was no mutual trust and employees were not willing to collaborate with each other. The models followed by the BBC before Dyke took the charge: Bureaucratic model: BBC was following bureaucratic model, which Dyke found, it was not suitable to the BBC because, those models will aim at only efficiency through framing strict rules and regulations. Everyone in the organization is bound to follow the rules even though the rules do not meet the persons capabilities. Some employees who have new ideas were also lacking behind because of these rules, which generally restricts their responsibilities. The models and programs of BBC implemented after dyke took the charge: 1) The rational goal model: this model focuses on the organizations ability to achieve its goals. An organizations goals are identified by establishing the general goal, and finding easy ways to achieve the general goals in turn which lead to achievement of organizational goals. 2) The managerial process model: A productivity of various managerial processes like decision making, planning, budgeting, is analyzed for achieving goals. The benefits of this model are: * Improves supervisory behavior and concern for workers * Increases team spirit, group loyalty, and teamwork among workers and between workers and management * Develops confidence, trust and communication among workers and between workers and management * Gives more freedom to set own objectives. 3) Organizational development model: This model also increases the organizations ability to work as a team and to fit the needs of its members. The benefits of these models are same as Managerial process model. 4) The structural functional model: this model tests the durability and flexibility of the organizations structure for responding to a diversity of situations and events. The benefits of this model are: * Helps the organization to be secured in relation to the social forces in its environment. * Improves stability of lines of authority and communication. * Improves stability of informal relations within the organization. * Continuity can be seen in policy making. 5) McKinsey Seven S models: this model helps in facing the competitors by analyzing Strength, weaknesses, opportunities, threats {SWOT} of BBC and there by working with respect to the areas where the BBC is weak. The diagram below explains the seven S of this model. Mckinsey 7 s model Clan control: MR. Dyke followed Clan control policy which represents cultural values almost the opposite of bureaucratic control. Clan control works well with values, beliefs, corporate culture, shared norms, and informal relationships to regulate employee behaviors and achieving organizational goals. Critical analyses of the programs implemented in BBC are: MAKING IT HAPPEN On February 07, 2002, Dyke announced the new program One BBC: Making It Happen, in-order to drive internal change at the BBC. The goal of this program was to make the BBC the most creative organization in the world by the year 2007. Dyke wanted to achieve this by giving more freedom to the people, encouraging new ideas, and changing the work culture. He also aimed at building trust among the employees, making them feel more valued, and improving the leadership capabilities of the people in higher positions. In the first step, Dyke and the BBCs senior management identified 7 areas where changes will make a huge difference. Dyke wanted the BBC employees to give their suggestions on how to improve the company in the seven areas through an appreciative inquiry process. For this, he initiated a consultation program called Just Imagine in which seven teams formed on the basis of the seven areas for change; he consulted the staff and managers across the organization. The teams headed by a leader, would record the various suggestions and ideas, come up with proposals for change, and report these to the Executive Committee. Along with 7 teams, 17 divisional teams were formed to carry on Making It Happen at the divisional level and developed the change plans. The consultation process started with the teams hosting the sessions which included a group of employees ranging between 25 and 200 at a time. During the sessions, the employees were asked to explain their most memorable experience at the BBC and the situations that helped in creating the experience and the steps to be taken to make the memorable experience a routine at the BBC. By September 2002, nearly 7,000 employees had voluntarily participated in the sessions, providing ideas and suggestions along with a number of issues. For instance, some employees highlighted that the BBC lacked a proper induction program, which had resulted in a number of new employees leaving the organization within six months of their joining. BBCS SEVEN THEME TEAMS †¢ Inspire Creativity Everywhere: Led by Helen Boaden, Controller Radio 4. This team gathered feedback on ways to improve creativity across the organization. †¢ Connect With All Audience: Led by Jane Root, Controller BBC Two. This team collected ideas on how to connect with audiences of all ages. †¢ Value People: The team, led by Jerry Timmins, Head of Americas, World Service, recorded ideas to create a better relationship among the employees. †¢ We Are The BBC: The team, led by Roger Mosey, Head of Television News, consulted employees and asked them about the steps to be taken to promote oneness among the employees. †¢ Just Do It: The team enquired the steps to be taken to reduce bureaucracy and transform the BBC into a can do organization. The team was led by Sara Geater, Director of Rights and Business Affairs. †¢ Lead More, Manage Less: This team believed that management is about leadership and emphasized that employees should be led rather than controlled. It dealt with what the employees wanted from their leaders. The team was led by Andy Griffee, Controller, and English Regions. †¢ Make Great Spaces: Led by Shar Nebhranjani, Head of Finance, New Media, the team dealt with making the working environment more exciting and creative. Dyke also introduced upfront for London based employees and the outcome is the formation of 6 groups. They are: †¢ One BBC: To create a closer organization. †¢ Leadership: To have great leadership. †¢ Audiences: To inspire and connect to a diverse audience. †¢ Creativity: To be the most creative organization in the world. †¢ Great spaces: To create better places to work. †¢ People: To provide better benefits, etc. THE BIG CONVERSATION On May 15, 2003, Dyke arranged a nationwide meeting of the BBC staff, which he called The Big Conversation. The London station was connected to all the BBC offices across Britain. Nearly 17,000 employees participated in the live interactive event and raised about 3,500 questions. This program was aimed at communicating the steps that would be taken to implement the changes. According to Dyke the important issue that came out of this conversation is related to complaints related the poor management standard. Many employees complained that they were being bullied rather than managed. Dyke found out that the BBC had good leaders, but not many, as there werent any leadership development programs. He was looking for employees to be led well. Any person handling more than 2 employees was put under the program and BBC willing to spend up to  £40 million on leadership development over the next 5 years. BBCS LEADERSHIP PROGRAM This program was developed using the feedback of Just Imagine sessions. The employees wanted to have a good relationship with their managers and good leadership across all levels. Its been found that BBC had 52 different leadership development programs across 17 divisions and that this had resulted in a difference in leadership capabilities across various divisions. During consultations the employees said that they felt the nice when their managers, supported, motivated, trusted and treated them with respect. These aspects were kept in mind while describing the qualities of a leader. The training program would run for six months. The leadership program was developed by BBC senior managers and the Ashridge business school staff. The BBC also involved some of its partners and customers in developing the leadership program. The program, designed around BBC values, was aimed at change in the behaviour of the employees with their subordinates and also aimed at training them to deal with problems that they could encounter as leaders such as managing incompetent staff. Before the start of the program, the managers are nominated for the training by their reporting manager and they were given 360-degree feedback in the company of a professional psychologist. This provided them with their objectives, which will be used for evaluating the progress after the training. The program started for all the 3 levels of leaders with 1 day workshop in which they learned about BBC leadership and important concepts of leadership such as collaborative working etc. Learn gateway provided learning content and material for the employees after the training. Connect gateway enabled the employees to share their knowledge; skills while Talk gateway enabled helped to debate, discuss various topics. Dyke was finally successful with his approaches and programs for a good period of time and thereby helping the BBC to retaining to its original position. References: Books Johnson,G,Scholes,K,whittington,R (2008).Exploring corporate strategy. 8th ed. 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